A review of research on social exclusion experienced by older people in rural England
Introduction
It is customary in most scientific papers to begin with a review of what is already known about a subject. From this usually follows a description of the aims and methods used in the investigation, then a summary of what was found, followed by a discussion of the implications of the findings.
Though the Over The Hill? project I am working on with the Rural Media Company is not strictly 'scientific' in its aims, but is intended to raise awareness of a social problem and to invite thorough the use of digital and other media renewed thought and new solutions, it is rooted in evidence and based on a basic scientific process. Part of the challenge of the project is to marry analytical principles and practices of research with creative outputs, including drama and documentary as well as written material. The aim is to bring about a change in a small part of society that currently experiences suffering: to do this it is important we get our facts right and build our arguments on solid ground.
In the review that follows and which was written for the Advisory Group of the project in March 2010 I offer a short summary of research on social exclusion for older people in rural England as a basis upon which other aspects of the project can be built. Rather than provide a detailed narrative at this stage of the project the aim is to present what seem to me to be the essential issues. Thus I restrict my report to a series of bullet points supported by references, ordered under a series of headings.
These headings are not intended to be exclusive. Indeed, many of the points made under one heading could be made with equal force under another. The problems that confront older people overlap to a considerable degree, and in the course of a long life one thing, as they say, can easily lead into another. Those who are now elderly and poor in the countryside are likely to have always been poor, dependent as they have been on the sort of low wage economy that characterises many rural communities, the more so the more remote they are. But they are not the only ones. For the past thirty years or so rural communities have seen a process of inward migration from people, usually middle class and in middle age, looking for a better quality of life and environment in which to live. Wealth alone cannot create wellbeing, and some of the most vulnerable older people in the countryside are now those who lack the social networks in which they may both offer and receive help when needed.
It is a familiar fact to those who serve rural communities that people who are socially excluded are more likely to be ‘hidden’, in part by the physical environment, but also by the myth of the rural idyll, which persists in the minds of many people and obscures the complex reality of modern rural living for a wide range of groups, not all of which have the resources to buy into it. Older people generally who are disadvantaged do not stand out as a visible group, and in the countryside they may easily merge into the background.
In my reading for this report I have been struck by the similarity of some of the more recent pronunciations on rural disadvantage to those I came across seven or eight years ago when researching the role of the voluntary sector and of Age Concern in particular in providing social capital in rural communities. It is this social capital that often prevents the vulnerable elderly from disappearing from view altogether. As one interviewee said to me, “Really, it’s the elderly looking after the elderly, you know.” Demographic indices suggest that the rural parts of England contain a higher proportion of older people than do urban areas and that this trend is set to continue and indeed to increase. The way we respond to the needs of vulnerable older people in the countryside is a test of how we as a society will care for our elderly generally, whom soon enough we ourselves will join, if we are not there already.
Increasingly, services for older people are required to do things with rather than for older people, especially as the baby boomers age and bring with them expectations of consumer choice and independence which they themselves have helped to create. How older people adapt to change and what forms of help they need are still aspects of social life that have received relatively little attention in the media or academia. The voices of older people have not yet been fully heard. The findings of this review are presented here to help support these voices and through this project to help provide the ground on which they may grow stronger.
The Ageing Countryside
o Within 20 years half the adult population in England will be aged 50 years and over, and will account for 40% of the total population 1. The reasons are a combination of factors: a ‘bulge’ in the population of people currently aged 30 – 60 (the so-called ‘baby-boomers’), greater longevity and a smaller size of successive cohorts generally2.
o Rural areas are ageing at a faster rate than urban areas. The fastest rate of growth is amongst the oldest old (age 85 years and over)1, 2
o Recognition of the implications of an ageing society and the challenges and opportunities it presents is growing1, 26. But many local authorities and other responsible agencies are unprepared or unaware of the changes that will affect the rural communities1
o Most older people in the countryside ‘age in place’.2 But the most vulnerable older people are the least likely to have a voice in local decision making1
The Status of Older People in the Countryside
o For many older people the rural environment offers the promise of a good standard of living in pleasant surroundings 1,4
o The most vulnerable are the oldest old (age 80+) and those who are poor and socially isolated or who lack access to basic services, adequate transport or decent housing 1,5,6
o Disadvantage is more likely to be hidden in the countryside, which increases the risk that problems are not recognised or are overlooked 1,3, 5
o In-migration (or counter-urbanisation) has had a major effect on rural communities. Retirement migration has been supplanted by people ‘downsizing’ or seeking quality of life in the countryside, often in middle age 2, 5, 9
Poverty
o The incidence of poverty amongst older people in rural areas is similar to that in urban areas. But there are wide divisions between the most wealthy and the least well-off in the countryside5
o The more remote the area, the greater proportion of older people living in poverty5
o Around 1 in 10 pensioners in private households in rural areas rely on state pension and benefits alone. Most of these households consist of one person only5, 10
o Those who are currently poor are likely to have been poor all their lives, and to have low awareness and expectations of their rights5, 11, 12, 28.
o Women are less likely than men to have accrued earnings, savings or pensions over a working life, or be able to drive6, 13, 14
Social Isolation and Loneliness
o Limited access to transport and to social networks can increase risks of social isolation for older people in rural areas21
o Social isolation is not the same as loneliness but can directly contribute to it. Loneliness can lead to further withdrawal and to health problems such as depression. Older people who are socially isolated may fail to seek help in good time or be recognised as having problems21, 36
o Research suggests that people who feel good about themselves are likely to live longer. Lower levels of stress, improved cardiovascular health and a greater willingness to seek help may be factors22
o Health problems are influenced by social inequalities as well as individual behaviours. In rural areas poverty increases the risk of social isolation, particularly when younger family members move away, or there are changes in the social structure of local communities21, 36
House and Home
o The concerns older people have about their housing are not just limited to the home itself. As well as issues of heating, security, size and quality of accommodation, aids, access, maintenance and adaptations, older people are concerned about location, services, transport, friends, family and neighbours6, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 25, 34
o Low level preventative services that help with small domestic tasks and enable older people to socialise and get out of the house can have a major impact and are highly valued by those that use them7, 8, 34
o Lack of affordable housing undermines community life. Young people move away, family networks and social infrastructure become fragmented Intergenerational relations suffer. Local services such as shops, pubs and schools become harder to maintain. Employers find it harder to recruit workers to low paid jobs, many of which are in the care sector 20
o The most popular move for older people within rural areas is towards rural towns2. But the decision to move or stay is often made on the basis of a complex trade-off between advantages and disadvantages24, 27
o Many older people in rural areas have lived in their homes for a considerable length of time28 and some are ‘asset rich, cash poor’. As people age their housing needs change 18, 19. But the choice to ‘downsize’ to cheaper property may be complicated by lack of suitable options and the need to pay for care and support services5.
o Increasing longevity is likely to affect the ability of older generations to transfer wealth, principally in the form of property, to younger generations. This type of financial inheritance is likely to further exacerbate wealth inequalities5.
Independence
o Independence is not only a matter of doing things for oneself; it involves doing things for and with other people too 8, 21, 23, 36
o Older people (as the rest of us) rely on a variety of formal and informal supporting services to help maintain independence6, 7, 8, 21, 36
o Informal help comes from family, friends and neighbours who may provide help with household tasks, shopping and transport. Many of the formal varieties of help for older people in rural areas, such as befriending, handyman schemes, social clubs, day care and exercise and activity groups are provided by older people through the voluntary sector6, 7, 8, 21, 23, 36
o Access to reliable, affordable and convenient transport is of crucial importance. Public transport services are often infrequent, or poorly timed to coincide with services. Access to a car (often a second car) is essential6
Serving rural communities
o Serving rural communities presents unique challenges. Populations are dispersed, communities and needs are diverse, vulnerable individuals can be hard to identify, and staff and volunteers may be difficult to recruit or retain6, 21, 29
o Economies of scale are harder to achieve, and unit costs of rural provision not adequately reflected in central government funding32, 33
o The process of personalising social care services through Individual Budgets for older people in rural areas offers the potential of greater choice and flexibility, but depends on the availability of local people to provide services and the infrastructure to support them33
o The process of developing a service in a rural community takes time and careful preparation. Services are more likely to succeed if they are sensitive to differences in each locality and make use of and integrate with existing networks and facilities21, 29
o The voluntary sector is crucial to the rural infrastructure in providing advice and information and in supporting social capital, but is vulnerable to an ageing corps of volunteers 21, 30, 31.
o All voluntary organisations are vulnerable to short term funding and have become subject to increasing levels of regulation and professionalization. Larger organisations are better equipped to manage these issues, but smaller ones may have stronger ‘grass roots’21, 30
The active elderly
References
1 Cabinet Office, Social Exclusion Task Force (2009) Working Together for Older People in Rural Areas,
2 Champion T, Shepherd, J., (2006) Demographic change in rural England, in Lowe P., Speakman, L (2006) The Ageing Countryside: the Growing Older Population of Rural England, London, Age Concern Books
3 Scharfe, T, Bartlam, B. (2006) Rural Disadvantage: Quality of life and disadvantage amongst older people – a pilot study, Commission for Rural Communities
4 Commission for Rural Communities (2008) State of the Countryside 2008
5 Gilbert, A, Philip, l., Shucksmith, M., (2006) Rich and poor in the countryside, in Lowe P., Speakman, L (2006) The Ageing Countryside: the Growing Older Population of Rural England, London, Age Concern Books
6 Bevan, M., Croucher, K., (2006) Delivering services for older people in rural areas, in Lowe P., Speakman, L (2006) The Ageing Countryside: the Growing Older Population of Rural England, London, Age Concern Books
7 Clark, H., Dyer, S., Horwood, J., (1998), That Bit of Help: The High Value of Low Level Preventative services, Bristol / York, The Policy Press/ Joseph Rowntree Foundation.
8 Le Mesurier N, (2003) Partners in Care The Effectiveness of Help At Home for Older People in Shropshire, Shrewsbury / Birmingham, Age Concern Shropshire Telford & The Wrekin, University of Birmingham.
9 Hardill, I, (2006) A place in the countryside – migration and the construction of rural living, in Lowe P., Speakman, L (2006) The Ageing Countryside: the Growing Older Population of Rural England, London, Age Concern Books
10 Countryside Agency (2003) Older People in Rural England, research note.
11, Gordon, D., Adelman, L., Ashworth, K., Bradshaw, J., Levitas, R., Middleton, S., Pantazis, C., Patsios, D., Payne, S., Townsend, P. and Williams, J. (2000) Poverty and Social Exclusion in Britain, York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation
12, Harrop, A. and Palmer, G. (2002) Indicators of Poverty and Social Exclusion in Rural England, 2002, The Countryside Agency, CAX117
13 Ginn, J. and Arber, S. (1996) ‘Patterns of employment, gender and pensions: the effect of work history on older women’s non-state pensions’, Work, Employment and Society 10 (3), 469–490
14 Little, J. and Austin, P. (1996) ‘Women and the rural idyll’, Journal of Rural Studies 12, 101–111
15 Wilson, D., Aspinall, P. and Murie, A. (1995) Factors Influencing the Housing Satisfaction of Older People, Birmingham: Centre for Urban and Rural Studies, University of Birmingham
16 Appleton, N. (2002) Planning for the Majority: The Needs and Aspirations of Older People in General Housing. York: York Publishing Services
17 Clough, R., Leamy, M., Bright, L. et al (2003) Homing in on Housing: A Study of Housing Decisions of People Aged Over 60, Lancaster: Eskrigg Social Research
18 Croucher, K., Pleace, N. and Bevan, M. (2003) Living at Hartrigg Oaks: Residents’ Views of the UK’s First Continuing Care Retirement Community, York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation
19 Department for Communities and Local Government / Department of Health / Department for Work and Pensions (2008) Lifetime Homes, Lifetime Neighbourhoods: a National Strategy for Housing in an Ageing Society, Communities and Local Government Publication, Wetherby, West Yorkshire
20 Spedding, A, (2008) Affordable Rural Housing – The Problems, RuSource Briefing 351, Stoneleigh, The Arthur Rank Foundation.
21 Le Mesurier, N. (2003) The Hidden Store – Older People’s Contribution to Rural Communities,London: Age Concern England
22 Levy, B.R, Slade, M.D., Kunkel, S.R., Kasl, S.V (2002), Longevity increased by positive self-perceptions of aging, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,Vol 83, No 2, 261 – 270.
23 Le Mesurier, N (2006) The contributions of older people to rural community and citizenship, in Lowe P., Speakman, L (2006) The Ageing Countryside: the Growing Older Population of Rural England, London, Age Concern Books
24 Commission for Rural Communities (2006) The Housing and Support Needs of Older People in Rural Areas, London, CRC.
25 hact and the Housing Corporation (2007) Designed to Deliver: Reducing the Isolation of Older People in Rural Communities, London, hact.
26 Her Majesty’s Government, (2009) Building a Society for All Ages, London http://www.hmg.gov.uk/buildingasocietyforallages.aspx
27 Hardill, I, (2006) ‘A place in the countryside’ – migration and the construction of rural living, in Lowe P., Speakman, L (2006) The Ageing Countryside: the Growing Older Population of Rural England, London, Age Concern Books
28, Scharfe, T., Bartlam, B., (2006) Rural Disadvantage: Quality of Life and Disadvantage Amongst Older People – A Pilot Study, London, Commission for Rural Communities
29 Le Mesurier, N. and Duncan, G. (2000) Over the Hills and Far Away – Providing Accessible Day Care Services for Older People in Rural Areas, Managing Community Care, Brighton: Pavilion Publishing
30 Yates, H. (2002), Supporting Rural Voluntary Action, London, NCVO, The Countryside Agency
31 Jochum,V, (2002), Social Capital and the Voluntary Sector in Britain, London, NCVO.
32 Commission for Rural Communities (undated) Briefing Note – How ca public resources be fairly allocated between different places http://www.ruralcommunities.gov.uk/files/09%20CRC%2019%20annex%201%20resource%20allocation%20statement.pdf
33 Commission for Rural Communities (2008) The Personalisation of Adult Social Care in Rural Areas, Cheltenham, CRC
34 Joseph Rowntree Foundation (2005) The Older People’s Enquiry – That Bit of Help – summary, York, JRF
35 Baker, R., Speakman, L., (2006) The older rural consumer, in Lowe P., Speakman, L (2006) The Ageing Countryside: the Growing Older Population of Rural England, London, Age Concern Books
36 Wenger, G.C., (1994) Support Networks of Older People: A Guide for Practitioners, Centre for Social Policy Research and Development, Bangor
It is customary in most scientific papers to begin with a review of what is already known about a subject. From this usually follows a description of the aims and methods used in the investigation, then a summary of what was found, followed by a discussion of the implications of the findings.
Though the Over The Hill? project I am working on with the Rural Media Company is not strictly 'scientific' in its aims, but is intended to raise awareness of a social problem and to invite thorough the use of digital and other media renewed thought and new solutions, it is rooted in evidence and based on a basic scientific process. Part of the challenge of the project is to marry analytical principles and practices of research with creative outputs, including drama and documentary as well as written material. The aim is to bring about a change in a small part of society that currently experiences suffering: to do this it is important we get our facts right and build our arguments on solid ground.
In the review that follows and which was written for the Advisory Group of the project in March 2010 I offer a short summary of research on social exclusion for older people in rural England as a basis upon which other aspects of the project can be built. Rather than provide a detailed narrative at this stage of the project the aim is to present what seem to me to be the essential issues. Thus I restrict my report to a series of bullet points supported by references, ordered under a series of headings.
These headings are not intended to be exclusive. Indeed, many of the points made under one heading could be made with equal force under another. The problems that confront older people overlap to a considerable degree, and in the course of a long life one thing, as they say, can easily lead into another. Those who are now elderly and poor in the countryside are likely to have always been poor, dependent as they have been on the sort of low wage economy that characterises many rural communities, the more so the more remote they are. But they are not the only ones. For the past thirty years or so rural communities have seen a process of inward migration from people, usually middle class and in middle age, looking for a better quality of life and environment in which to live. Wealth alone cannot create wellbeing, and some of the most vulnerable older people in the countryside are now those who lack the social networks in which they may both offer and receive help when needed.
It is a familiar fact to those who serve rural communities that people who are socially excluded are more likely to be ‘hidden’, in part by the physical environment, but also by the myth of the rural idyll, which persists in the minds of many people and obscures the complex reality of modern rural living for a wide range of groups, not all of which have the resources to buy into it. Older people generally who are disadvantaged do not stand out as a visible group, and in the countryside they may easily merge into the background.
In my reading for this report I have been struck by the similarity of some of the more recent pronunciations on rural disadvantage to those I came across seven or eight years ago when researching the role of the voluntary sector and of Age Concern in particular in providing social capital in rural communities. It is this social capital that often prevents the vulnerable elderly from disappearing from view altogether. As one interviewee said to me, “Really, it’s the elderly looking after the elderly, you know.” Demographic indices suggest that the rural parts of England contain a higher proportion of older people than do urban areas and that this trend is set to continue and indeed to increase. The way we respond to the needs of vulnerable older people in the countryside is a test of how we as a society will care for our elderly generally, whom soon enough we ourselves will join, if we are not there already.
Increasingly, services for older people are required to do things with rather than for older people, especially as the baby boomers age and bring with them expectations of consumer choice and independence which they themselves have helped to create. How older people adapt to change and what forms of help they need are still aspects of social life that have received relatively little attention in the media or academia. The voices of older people have not yet been fully heard. The findings of this review are presented here to help support these voices and through this project to help provide the ground on which they may grow stronger.
The Ageing Countryside
o Within 20 years half the adult population in England will be aged 50 years and over, and will account for 40% of the total population 1. The reasons are a combination of factors: a ‘bulge’ in the population of people currently aged 30 – 60 (the so-called ‘baby-boomers’), greater longevity and a smaller size of successive cohorts generally2.
o Rural areas are ageing at a faster rate than urban areas. The fastest rate of growth is amongst the oldest old (age 85 years and over)1, 2
o Recognition of the implications of an ageing society and the challenges and opportunities it presents is growing1, 26. But many local authorities and other responsible agencies are unprepared or unaware of the changes that will affect the rural communities1
o Most older people in the countryside ‘age in place’.2 But the most vulnerable older people are the least likely to have a voice in local decision making1
The Status of Older People in the Countryside
o For many older people the rural environment offers the promise of a good standard of living in pleasant surroundings 1,4
o The most vulnerable are the oldest old (age 80+) and those who are poor and socially isolated or who lack access to basic services, adequate transport or decent housing 1,5,6
o Disadvantage is more likely to be hidden in the countryside, which increases the risk that problems are not recognised or are overlooked 1,3, 5
o In-migration (or counter-urbanisation) has had a major effect on rural communities. Retirement migration has been supplanted by people ‘downsizing’ or seeking quality of life in the countryside, often in middle age 2, 5, 9
Poverty
o The incidence of poverty amongst older people in rural areas is similar to that in urban areas. But there are wide divisions between the most wealthy and the least well-off in the countryside5
o The more remote the area, the greater proportion of older people living in poverty5
o Around 1 in 10 pensioners in private households in rural areas rely on state pension and benefits alone. Most of these households consist of one person only5, 10
o Those who are currently poor are likely to have been poor all their lives, and to have low awareness and expectations of their rights5, 11, 12, 28.
o Women are less likely than men to have accrued earnings, savings or pensions over a working life, or be able to drive6, 13, 14
Social Isolation and Loneliness
o Limited access to transport and to social networks can increase risks of social isolation for older people in rural areas21
o Social isolation is not the same as loneliness but can directly contribute to it. Loneliness can lead to further withdrawal and to health problems such as depression. Older people who are socially isolated may fail to seek help in good time or be recognised as having problems21, 36
o Research suggests that people who feel good about themselves are likely to live longer. Lower levels of stress, improved cardiovascular health and a greater willingness to seek help may be factors22
o Health problems are influenced by social inequalities as well as individual behaviours. In rural areas poverty increases the risk of social isolation, particularly when younger family members move away, or there are changes in the social structure of local communities21, 36
House and Home
o The concerns older people have about their housing are not just limited to the home itself. As well as issues of heating, security, size and quality of accommodation, aids, access, maintenance and adaptations, older people are concerned about location, services, transport, friends, family and neighbours6, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 25, 34
o Low level preventative services that help with small domestic tasks and enable older people to socialise and get out of the house can have a major impact and are highly valued by those that use them7, 8, 34
o Lack of affordable housing undermines community life. Young people move away, family networks and social infrastructure become fragmented Intergenerational relations suffer. Local services such as shops, pubs and schools become harder to maintain. Employers find it harder to recruit workers to low paid jobs, many of which are in the care sector 20
o The most popular move for older people within rural areas is towards rural towns2. But the decision to move or stay is often made on the basis of a complex trade-off between advantages and disadvantages24, 27
o Many older people in rural areas have lived in their homes for a considerable length of time28 and some are ‘asset rich, cash poor’. As people age their housing needs change 18, 19. But the choice to ‘downsize’ to cheaper property may be complicated by lack of suitable options and the need to pay for care and support services5.
o Increasing longevity is likely to affect the ability of older generations to transfer wealth, principally in the form of property, to younger generations. This type of financial inheritance is likely to further exacerbate wealth inequalities5.
Independence
o Independence is not only a matter of doing things for oneself; it involves doing things for and with other people too 8, 21, 23, 36
o Older people (as the rest of us) rely on a variety of formal and informal supporting services to help maintain independence6, 7, 8, 21, 36
o Informal help comes from family, friends and neighbours who may provide help with household tasks, shopping and transport. Many of the formal varieties of help for older people in rural areas, such as befriending, handyman schemes, social clubs, day care and exercise and activity groups are provided by older people through the voluntary sector6, 7, 8, 21, 23, 36
o Access to reliable, affordable and convenient transport is of crucial importance. Public transport services are often infrequent, or poorly timed to coincide with services. Access to a car (often a second car) is essential6
Serving rural communities
o Serving rural communities presents unique challenges. Populations are dispersed, communities and needs are diverse, vulnerable individuals can be hard to identify, and staff and volunteers may be difficult to recruit or retain6, 21, 29
o Economies of scale are harder to achieve, and unit costs of rural provision not adequately reflected in central government funding32, 33
o The process of personalising social care services through Individual Budgets for older people in rural areas offers the potential of greater choice and flexibility, but depends on the availability of local people to provide services and the infrastructure to support them33
o The process of developing a service in a rural community takes time and careful preparation. Services are more likely to succeed if they are sensitive to differences in each locality and make use of and integrate with existing networks and facilities21, 29
o The voluntary sector is crucial to the rural infrastructure in providing advice and information and in supporting social capital, but is vulnerable to an ageing corps of volunteers 21, 30, 31.
o All voluntary organisations are vulnerable to short term funding and have become subject to increasing levels of regulation and professionalization. Larger organisations are better equipped to manage these issues, but smaller ones may have stronger ‘grass roots’21, 30
The active elderly
- Older people are major providers of social capital in rural areas through their involvement in local voluntary groups and through informal relationships with neighbours, friends and family21, 23, 34
- Older people want to remain active and engaged and know best what they need. Timely, individually targeted help in the form of local services can make all the difference, preventing deterioration and providing new ways and opportunities for participation7, 21, 23,34
- The power of older people as consumers should not be overlooked. Older people, particularly ‘baby boomers’ are major users of technology, consumer opportunities and local services. In developing rural voluntary services new ways need to be developed to appeal to older people’s interests and capitalise on their ability to contribute to rural infrastructure 21, 23, 35
References
1 Cabinet Office, Social Exclusion Task Force (2009) Working Together for Older People in Rural Areas,
2 Champion T, Shepherd, J., (2006) Demographic change in rural England, in Lowe P., Speakman, L (2006) The Ageing Countryside: the Growing Older Population of Rural England, London, Age Concern Books
3 Scharfe, T, Bartlam, B. (2006) Rural Disadvantage: Quality of life and disadvantage amongst older people – a pilot study, Commission for Rural Communities
4 Commission for Rural Communities (2008) State of the Countryside 2008
5 Gilbert, A, Philip, l., Shucksmith, M., (2006) Rich and poor in the countryside, in Lowe P., Speakman, L (2006) The Ageing Countryside: the Growing Older Population of Rural England, London, Age Concern Books
6 Bevan, M., Croucher, K., (2006) Delivering services for older people in rural areas, in Lowe P., Speakman, L (2006) The Ageing Countryside: the Growing Older Population of Rural England, London, Age Concern Books
7 Clark, H., Dyer, S., Horwood, J., (1998), That Bit of Help: The High Value of Low Level Preventative services, Bristol / York, The Policy Press/ Joseph Rowntree Foundation.
8 Le Mesurier N, (2003) Partners in Care The Effectiveness of Help At Home for Older People in Shropshire, Shrewsbury / Birmingham, Age Concern Shropshire Telford & The Wrekin, University of Birmingham.
9 Hardill, I, (2006) A place in the countryside – migration and the construction of rural living, in Lowe P., Speakman, L (2006) The Ageing Countryside: the Growing Older Population of Rural England, London, Age Concern Books
10 Countryside Agency (2003) Older People in Rural England, research note.
11, Gordon, D., Adelman, L., Ashworth, K., Bradshaw, J., Levitas, R., Middleton, S., Pantazis, C., Patsios, D., Payne, S., Townsend, P. and Williams, J. (2000) Poverty and Social Exclusion in Britain, York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation
12, Harrop, A. and Palmer, G. (2002) Indicators of Poverty and Social Exclusion in Rural England, 2002, The Countryside Agency, CAX117
13 Ginn, J. and Arber, S. (1996) ‘Patterns of employment, gender and pensions: the effect of work history on older women’s non-state pensions’, Work, Employment and Society 10 (3), 469–490
14 Little, J. and Austin, P. (1996) ‘Women and the rural idyll’, Journal of Rural Studies 12, 101–111
15 Wilson, D., Aspinall, P. and Murie, A. (1995) Factors Influencing the Housing Satisfaction of Older People, Birmingham: Centre for Urban and Rural Studies, University of Birmingham
16 Appleton, N. (2002) Planning for the Majority: The Needs and Aspirations of Older People in General Housing. York: York Publishing Services
17 Clough, R., Leamy, M., Bright, L. et al (2003) Homing in on Housing: A Study of Housing Decisions of People Aged Over 60, Lancaster: Eskrigg Social Research
18 Croucher, K., Pleace, N. and Bevan, M. (2003) Living at Hartrigg Oaks: Residents’ Views of the UK’s First Continuing Care Retirement Community, York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation
19 Department for Communities and Local Government / Department of Health / Department for Work and Pensions (2008) Lifetime Homes, Lifetime Neighbourhoods: a National Strategy for Housing in an Ageing Society, Communities and Local Government Publication, Wetherby, West Yorkshire
20 Spedding, A, (2008) Affordable Rural Housing – The Problems, RuSource Briefing 351, Stoneleigh, The Arthur Rank Foundation.
21 Le Mesurier, N. (2003) The Hidden Store – Older People’s Contribution to Rural Communities,London: Age Concern England
22 Levy, B.R, Slade, M.D., Kunkel, S.R., Kasl, S.V (2002), Longevity increased by positive self-perceptions of aging, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,Vol 83, No 2, 261 – 270.
23 Le Mesurier, N (2006) The contributions of older people to rural community and citizenship, in Lowe P., Speakman, L (2006) The Ageing Countryside: the Growing Older Population of Rural England, London, Age Concern Books
24 Commission for Rural Communities (2006) The Housing and Support Needs of Older People in Rural Areas, London, CRC.
25 hact and the Housing Corporation (2007) Designed to Deliver: Reducing the Isolation of Older People in Rural Communities, London, hact.
26 Her Majesty’s Government, (2009) Building a Society for All Ages, London http://www.hmg.gov.uk/buildingasocietyforallages.aspx
27 Hardill, I, (2006) ‘A place in the countryside’ – migration and the construction of rural living, in Lowe P., Speakman, L (2006) The Ageing Countryside: the Growing Older Population of Rural England, London, Age Concern Books
28, Scharfe, T., Bartlam, B., (2006) Rural Disadvantage: Quality of Life and Disadvantage Amongst Older People – A Pilot Study, London, Commission for Rural Communities
29 Le Mesurier, N. and Duncan, G. (2000) Over the Hills and Far Away – Providing Accessible Day Care Services for Older People in Rural Areas, Managing Community Care, Brighton: Pavilion Publishing
30 Yates, H. (2002), Supporting Rural Voluntary Action, London, NCVO, The Countryside Agency
31 Jochum,V, (2002), Social Capital and the Voluntary Sector in Britain, London, NCVO.
32 Commission for Rural Communities (undated) Briefing Note – How ca public resources be fairly allocated between different places http://www.ruralcommunities.gov.uk/files/09%20CRC%2019%20annex%201%20resource%20allocation%20statement.pdf
33 Commission for Rural Communities (2008) The Personalisation of Adult Social Care in Rural Areas, Cheltenham, CRC
34 Joseph Rowntree Foundation (2005) The Older People’s Enquiry – That Bit of Help – summary, York, JRF
35 Baker, R., Speakman, L., (2006) The older rural consumer, in Lowe P., Speakman, L (2006) The Ageing Countryside: the Growing Older Population of Rural England, London, Age Concern Books
36 Wenger, G.C., (1994) Support Networks of Older People: A Guide for Practitioners, Centre for Social Policy Research and Development, Bangor